, Biographical references concerning many late medieval Italian jurists can be found in the Dizionario biografico degli italiani, Rome, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia italiana, biografie) and in the Dizionario Biografico dei Giuristi Italiani (XII-XX secolo), pp.201-234, 1960.
, Au Moyen Âge, lorsque la civilisation occidentale s'est forgée, le "droit" portait essentiellement sur une science de gouvernance publique, Une très brève histoire du droit dans la civilisation occidentale (1000-2000), vol.77, pp.211-213, 2017.
, On consilia dealing with inter-polity disputes and diplomatic issues, see R.M. Greenwood, Law and War in Late Medieval Italy : the Jus Commune on War and its Application in Florence, See Consilia im späten Mittelalter. Zum historischen Aussagewert einer Quellengattung, pp.1150-1450, 1995.
, The Tyranny of a Concept », Rivista internazionale di diritto comune, vol.5, pp.197-209, 1994.
, English diplomatic practice in the Middle Ages, 102-103, 177-178 and 181, and, pp.111-112, 0197.
, A rich collection of studies on representation from Antiquity to Modernity is Agire per altri. La rappresentanza negoziale, processuale, amministrativa nella prospettiva storica, On representation in Roman law, see M. Miceli, Studi sulla "rappresentanza" nel diritto romano, 2008.
, On late medieval scholarship on private law agency and diplomatic representation, see R. Fränkel, « Die Grundsätze der Stellvertretung bei den Scholastikern, Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, vol.27, pp.289-391, 1912.
, « Les doctrines des romanistes du Moyen Âge sur l'acquisition de la possession et de la propriété par l'intermédiaire d'un mandataire, Symbolae ad jus et historiam antiquitatis pertinentes Julio Christiano Van Oven dedicatae (Symbolae Van Oven), pp.361-378, 1946.
, Nouvelles observations sur le mandat chez le canonistes classiques, Sul principio della rappresentanza diretta, vol.26, 1970.
, Procureurs et représentation en droit canonique médiéval, vol.114, pp.41-57, 2002.
, Repräsentation
, « La rappresentanza negoziale nel diritto comune classico, Agire per altri, pp.393-494
, , pp.205-224
, Medieval Diplomacy (note 28) ; and Id, Thirteenth-Century Diplomatic Envoys : Nuncii and Procuratores, pp.3-59, 1960.
, which reads : « Defensores quoque, quos graeci syndicos appellant, et qui ad certam causam agendam vel defendendam eliguntur, laborem personalis muneris adgrediuntur » ; the Ordinary gloss ad v. eliguntur identifies those who are appointed ad certam causam with actores, vol.13, pp.1558-1560
, On the relation of this gloss to pre-Accursian glosses to the same lex, see V. Crescenzi, « Le origini del Sindicus-procurator a Siena (secc. XII-XIII), Archivio storico italiano, vol.478, pp.375-385, 1973.
, Tractavimus de procuratore, qui agit causam alienam ; nunc tractemus de syndico, p.25
, Gratiae Libri de iudiciorum ordine (note 30), pars I, tit. De syndico et actore, pp.123-126
, Summa aurea (note 8), liber I, tit. De Syndico, col, pp.397-402
, De his, qui alieno nomine in Iudicio interveniunt, p. 201a-202a ; and ibid., tit. De syndico, Le droit savant au Moyen Âge et sa vulgarisation, vol.24, pp.381-448, 1956.
, Universitas : expressions du mouvement communautaire dans le Moyen-Âge latin, 1970.
, The Political Thought of Baldus de Ubaldis, pp.185-208, 1987.
, Digesto delle discipline privatistiche, 4 th ed., sez. Civile, vol.XIII, pp.407-420, 1995.
, For a critical view, see S. Reynolds, « The history of the idea of incorporation or legal personality : a case of fallacious teleology, Foundations in Continental Law since the 12 th Century : The Legal Person Concept and Trust-like Devices, pp.206-237, 1995.
, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, pp.27-60
, 3 : « In his, quae adeo sunt personalia, quod ex persona procuratoris non possunt transire in dominum, procurator repraesentat personam domini directo, p.1596
, Repräsentation (note 26), pp.159-170
, , p.1536
, « Fictio legis. L'empire de la fiction romaine et ses limites médiévales, Diritto e realtà : storia e teoria della fictio iuris, pp.133-186, 1979.
, La rappresentanza negoziale, pp.394-399
, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, pp.93-102
, Impensis honesti viri Hugonis a Porta, 1541, ad Cod. 2.48.1, f o 11ra, n. 4 : « Et syndici universitatum qui gerunt publica officia possunt petere restitutionem, licet non habeant speciale mandatum. Pro hoc s. de offic, Commentarii in universum Ius civile, Ludguni
, Sed syndicus monasterij qui non sit de gremio vel etiam si sit, non potest sine speciali mandato ». This opinion is cited by Cynus de Pistorio, Lectura super Codice, Francofurti ad Moenum, Impensis Sigismundi Feyerabendt, 1578 [reprint Rome, Il Cigno Galileo Galilei, 1998.
, primum, secundum et tertium libros Codicis Commentaria, p.1596
, In civitate illa), ad v. mittit [recte mittat], f o 154va, after quoting Odofredus : « Et si plures sunt creati sindici ab universitate, gerunt publicam personam, videtur quod habeant mandatum insolidum, ar[gumento] ff. de admi. tu. l. decreto [Dig. 26.7.24], etiam in his que requiruntur speciale mandatum, ut ff. de iure iuran. l. iusiurandum, et ad pecunias § defensor, PC, cap, vol.8
, 6 : « Dicit Arch[idiaconus] quod sindicus sine speciali mandato iurandi non iurat, Sextum Decretalium Librum Commentaria (quae Novellas appellavit) Acutissima, Venetiis, Apud Franciscum Franciscium, Senensem, p.1581
, Guido de Baisio did not refer to syndici in his comment on c. 3, VI 2.4 (nor did he refer to them in his comments on the other decretals included in this section) : see Archidiaconus super sexto Decretalium, Lugduni, Apud haeredes Iacobi Giuntae, 1547, pp.59-59
, 1 : « Rem haberi ratam hoc est comprobare adgnoscereque quod actum est a falso procuratore ». The Ordinary gloss ad v. procuratore clarified : « In falso exigitur ratihabitio : in vero non. Nam cogimur habere ratum : ut s. de procura. l. non solum circa prin
, Queller argues that « the total number of subsequent ratifications found among the documents is relatively small compared to the total number of covenants negotiated by plenipotentiaries, pp.60-61
, Later sources give more explicit instances of the immediate validity of an act performed by ambassadors provided with full powers being accepted in legal doctrine, even though these sources also warn us that
, , pp.408-427
, However, as pointed out by O. Condorelli, « I foedera pacis e il principio pacta sunt servanda. Note di ricerca nel pensiero dei giuristi dei secoli XII-XV, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte : Kanonistische Abteilung, 105, pp.80-82, 2012.
, , vol.406, pp.416-436
, primam Digesti Veteris partem Commentaria
, f o 232rb : « [?] his, qui publicum gerunt officium [?] possunt concipere verba solutionis directa in personam domini sui, dicendo, constituis te mihi soluturum domino meo, p.1580
, Contingit, quod Florentinus notarius in territorio Florentinorum stipulatus est pro Perusino absente, a quo nullum mandatum stipulandi habebat. Quaeritur, an ex tali stipulatione actio sine cessione quaeratur ? &c. Quod dicta actio & ius sine cessione quaeratur, facit : quia dicta provisio statutaria per modum beneficij & gratiae emanavit. Providet enim istis, quorum nomine stipulatio recipitur, ut eisdem sine cessione quaeratur : sicut providet ius commune in quibusdam casibus, in quibus alteri per alterum quaeritur utilis sine cessione, cum tamen stipulatur tutor aut notarius, rem pupilli salvam fore, aut aliquod aliud ad officium suum spectans, aut syndicus, vel actor universitatis, 1575, consilium 73, f o 48ra : « In statuto Florentino cavetur, quod ex stipulatione notarij quaeratur ius, & actio solum illi, cuius nomine stipulatus fuerit : & absque alia cessione
, On the early modern practice of ratification, see R. Lesaffer, « Peace treaties from Lodi to Westphalia, pp.22-29
, II (books III-IV), ed. M. Meserve and M. Simonetta, p.221, 2004.
, Eccui poteris mandato credere, si ratio ista recipitur ? Aut res adeo necessaria vitae huminum, ut est usus procuratorum, de vita tolletur ? Contra hos Florentinos Pius Secundus, turpe, mittere mandata invalida ; & turpius, eis uti. Verissime. Etsi nihil profecit papa »), transl. De iure belli libri tres, p.363, 1598.
, Guicciardini wrote his History of Italy between 1535 and 1540. On the Italian wars, see the synthesis by, Les guerres d'Italie. Des batailles pour l'Europe, vol.15, pp.1494-1559, 2003.
, « Ma avendo subito il re e Filippo mandato nel regno di Napoli a intimare la pace fatta, e a comandare a' capitani che insino a tanto venisse la ratificazione de' re di Spagna, vol.15, p.574
, But these Catholics have two pens, and two tongues » 80 ; as for the latter, he explicitly gave priority to the mandate over secret instructions, saying that when a treaty is concluded by an agent « whoever has appointed [him] is bound, even if the agent, while yet within the limits of his public function, has acted contrary to secret instructions » 81 . 17. In the second half of the seventeenth century, this doctrine was reaffirmed both by Samuel von Pufendorf, the holder of the first chair in the law of nature and of nations (established in Heidelberg in 1672) 82 , and by the Dutch ambassador Abraham de Wicquefort, vol.78, p.83
, Letter of Attorney is in reference to a private Person », and considered ratification not to be necessary in strict legal terms, although he conceded that it could be usefully requested as a proof of the counterpart's good faith 84 : Ratification is not an essential part of a Treaty ; which is by so much the more evident, not only because a Treaty is a common and publick Instrument, and the Ratification a private and particular one ; but also because a Treaty would be good, and subsist without the Ratification, if it were certain that the Treaty, and he that has made it, would not be disavow'd. [?] As the Civil Laws oblige a private Person to ratify what his Mandatary has done by virtue of his Procurations
, Emer de Vattel cast some doubt on the automatic validity of treaties after their conclusion, observing that the rulers of their time usually reserved the right to ratify whatever they agents had concluded : while the former accepted this practice based on the idea that custom determined the principal part of ius gentium 86 , the latter noted that, since « sovereigns can not be constrained [?] to fulfill their engagements, it is usual not to consider their treaties as final until approved and ratified by the sovereigns themselves », although he went on to affirm that « cogent and substantial reasons are needed to justify a sovereign in refusing to ratify the act of his plenipotentiary » 87 . However, Georg Friedrich von Martens would still write
, Les six livres de la République, pp.818-819
, De iure belli libri III (note 74), III.14, p. 594, transl. De iure belli libri tres, p.362
, « [?] obligari eum qui praeposuit etiam si praepositus fecit contra mandata arcana, intra limites tamen publicae functionis »), transl. De jure belli ac pacis libri tres, pp.270-276, 1925.
, De jure naturae et gentium libri octo, Londini Scanorum, Sumtibus Adami Junghans imprimebat Vitus Haberegger, 1672, III.9, vol.2, pp.377-378
, « Abraham de Wicquefort et ses traités sur l'ambassadeur (1676-1682) », in De l'ambassadeur. Les écrits relatifs à l'ambassadeur et à l, pp.405-430
, transl. The Embassador and his Functions, vol.2, pp.405-413
, L'ambassadeur et ses fonctions (note 84), II.15, p. 376 and 385, transl. The Embassador and his Functions, pp.405-408
, apud Joannem van Kerckhem, 1737, II, vol.7, pp.228-234
, As his reflection on the issue reveals, the traditional notion of diplomatic representation, grounded in the notion of private law agency developed by late medieval ius commune jurists, was -at least in theory -still valid at the turn of the nineteenth century. It was only during that century that a new doctrine would arise, and ratification would become a fully free and discretionary act, that « every thing that has been stipulated by an agent in conformity to his full powers, ought to become obligatory for the state, vol.88
, CNRS, UMR 8025 -CHJ -Centre d'Histoire Judiciaire, F-59000
, , vol.1758, p.161, 1916.
, Précis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe fondé sur les traités et l'usage, t. I, Gottingue, chés Jean Chret. Dieterich, 1789, II.1 § 31, p. 51, transl. A Compendium of the Law of Nations, See M. Koskenniemi, « Into Positivism : Georg Friedrich von Martens (1756-1821) and Modern International Law, vol.15, pp.189-207, 2008.
, Full Powers and Ratifications : A study in the development of treaty-making procedure, 1946.